Wilkerson Company

Assessment 2 – Individual By – Andrew Chan WILKERSON COMPANY Overview Wilkerson Company is facing a decline in profits and has attributed this to a severe price cutting exercise in their Pumps line of products, dropping the company’s pre-tax margin to less than 3%, far below the historically healthy 10% margins. It appears that gross margins on pump sales in the latest month had fallen below 20%, well below the budgeted gross margin of 35%. Although a recent increase to Flow Controllers by 10% seems to have been overlooked by competitors and have not caused an apparent effect on demand. Wilkerson had always practiced using a simple cost accounting system in their business. Cost Drivers | |Valves |Pumps |Flow Controllers |TOTAL | |Production |7500 |12,500 |4,000 |24,000 | |Direct Labor |10 |12. 0 |10 | | |Material Costs |16 |20 |22 | | | | | | | | |Machine Hours |3,750 |6,250 |1,200 | | |Production Run |10 |50 |100 | | |No. f Shipments |10 |70 |220 | | |Hrs Engineering |250 |375 |625 | | | | | | | | |Direct Labor Expenses |75,000 |156,250 |40,000 |$271,250 | |Direct Material Expenses |120,000 |250,000 |88,000 |$458,000 | Action Whilst a simple cost accounting system gives us the overall picture of the company, it doesn’t truly reflect an accurate picture of the performance of each product. In order to get a clearer picture of the situation, we need to examine the true relation of costs on each product based on their activities. For this to happen, we need to use the ABC system to examine and identify the overhead costs of each product based on their activities. [pic] Machine |Set Up |Receiving |Engineering |Shipping | |$336,000/ |$40,000/ |$180,000/ |$100,000/ |$150,000/ | |11,200 |160 |160 |1250 |300 | |=$30 p/h |=$250 |=$1,125 p/run |=$80 p/h |=$500 p/ship | Manufacturing Overhead Using ABC | |Valves |Pumps |Flow Control |TOTAL | | |30Ãâ€"3750 |30Ãâ€"6250 |30Ãâ€"1200 | | |Machine |112,500 |187,500 |36,000 |$336,000 | | 1125Ãâ€"10 |1125Ãâ€"50 |1125Ãâ€"100 | | |Receiving |11,250 |56,250 |112,500 |$180,000 | | |80Ãâ€"250 |80Ãâ€"375 |80Ãâ€"625 | | |Engineering |20,000 |30,000 |50,000 |$100,000 | | |500Ãâ€"10 |500Ãâ€"70 |500Ãâ€"220 | | |Shipping |5,000 |35,000 |110,000 |$150,000 | | |250Ãâ€"10 |250Ãâ€"50 |250Ãâ€"100 | | |Set Up |2,500 |12,500 |25,000 |$40,000 | | |$151,250/ |$321,250/ |$333,500/ |$806,000 | | |7500 |12,500 |4000 | | | | | | | | |Overhead Costs p/unit using ABC |$20. 17 |$25. 70 |$83. 38 | | Comparison between Simple Cost Accounting System and ABC System Simple Cost Accounting |Valves |Pumps |Flow Controller | |Costs p/unit |$56 |$70 |$62 | |Actual Selling Price |$86 |$87 |$105 | |Actual Profit |$30 |$17 |$43 | ABC System | |Valves |Pumps |Flow Controller | |Costs p/unit |$46. 17 |$58. 20 |$115. 38 | |Actual S elling Price |$86 |$87 |$105 | |Actual Profit |$39. 83 |$28. 80 |$(10. 38) | |Valves |Pumps |Flow Controller | |Simple Accounting Gross Margin | | | | | |34. 9% |19. 5% |41% | | | | | | |ABC Gross Margin |46. 3% |33. 1% |-9. 9% | Key Findings The previously thought â€Å"star† product, the Flow Controller when using the ABC system is identified to be actually performing poorly. The cost of producing the Flow Controller is higher then the actual selling price and producing a negative gross margin of nearly 10%. †¢ The Pumps product line which was causing the concern of management and blamed for dragging Wilkerson’s operating income to a 3% margin is in fact not doing badly. This may explain why competitors dropped their pricing. †¢ Being a simple 4 machined component product to produce and can be shipped in large lots, Wilkerson’s Valves are doing extremely well and performing well above the targeted 35% gross margin. Recommendations Increase the sellin g price of Flow Controllers by 10% to $116, making the sale price and costs per unit to be of negligible difference. Monitor the results, review and suggestion is to continue the gradual price increase into profit territory over a 6-12 month period. †¢ Cut price to Valves by 10% in order to capture market share as no competitors have tried. Based on March 2000 data, operations still have room to run at a higher capacity which in turn lowers per unit costs. †¢ Hold pricing on Pumps as the process of manufacturing is practically identical to Valves and the increase in production of Valves can be rolled over to Pumps and thus reduce costs per unit. |Valves |Pumps |Flow Controller | |Costs p/unit |$46. 17 |$58. 20 |$115. 38 | |New Selling Price |$77 |Hold |$116 | |Target Profit |$30. 83 |Hold |- | |Target gross margin |40% |Hold |0% | At Capacity Machine |Set Up |Receiving |Engineering |Shipping | |$336,000/ |$40,000/ |$180,000/ |$100,000/ |$150,000/ | |12,000 |180 |180 |1250 |400 | |=$28 p/h |=$222. 22 |=$1,000 p/run |=$80 p/h |=$375 p/ship | ———————– $336,000 $40,000 $180,000 $100,000 $150,000 Products MachineSet Up ReceivingEngineering Shipping Overhead $806,000

Defining a Hero: Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird and Atticus Finch’s Heroism Essay

The definition of a hero is varied and intricate. While there are certain types of heroism such as altruistic heroism, or other machismo bravado this paper will seek to find a definition to the specific heroism as exhibited in Harper Lee’s character Atticus Finch in To Kill a Mockingbird. A discussion of the definition of hero according to literary terms (as defined by the Greeks, Aristotle and Plato – especially using his philosophy on morality) will be used to set up the paper in order to discover what makes Atticus Finch a classic hero. Such issues as racism and bravery against prejudice will strongly support this thesis claim. The idea of heroism in the form of a literary character has its roots with Greek drama. This drama expressed heroes as having a major flaw. It was this flaw which at once destroyed them but also allowed them to be human and therefore be able to be labeled as heroes. In finding this definition them the readers of Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird must consider what odds are against Atticus Finch and what flaws or flaw he has in his character that allow him to be a human hero. Aristotle’s definition for a hero is one who is not in control of his own fate, but instead is ruled by the gods in one fashion or another – in the case of Atticus Finch his fate and the fate of his trial is determined by the jury. It is then the jury who exhibit control over Finch’s fate and the fate of his client. Although Atticus is a hero of Lee’s story, he must be considered a tragic hero for his bravery is met by opposition and it is this opposition that ultimately wins the battle of justice versus prejudice in Harper Lee’s novel. The tragic hero for Aristotle is tragic because of their lack of control or will in the face of their predetermined future and downfall – a predetermined future which is well established in the bigotry of the jurors in the court case scenes whereby Atticus is shown to be a hero as well as showing his ultimate downfall in the jury convicting Tom Robinson of rape. A great tragic flaw (hamartia) is the hero’s devil may care attitude at the beginning of each story, and then their despondency and stagnation of hope that meets them at the end of the play. This is shown with Atticus’ belief that justice will prevail in the courtroom and his revelation of Mayella Ewell making sexual passes toward Tom and her drunken father Bob Ewell catching her in the act. Thus, hope seems to be lost for the hero. Therefore, although Atticus Finch may be defined as a hero his heroism character traits in the novel still is marked by failure. While Atticus is defined as a hero, his heroism is determined by subjective narration. Harper Lee tells his story through the voice of Scout, Atticus’ daughter, therefore, the idealism with which a daughter has for their father is already in play in determining the character traits of heroism in Atticus Finch (this can be strongly seen when Scout fights the other kids at the playground for calling her father a ‘nigger lover’). Although there is a sincere amount of idealism in play in the novel in regards to Scout’s viewpoint of her father, there are other elements of the story which aid in defining Atticus’ heroism. In Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird racism is ubiquitous with the young culture in the town. Just as Atticus is a lawyer in the book, Scout the narrator and child depicts the scene of racism thusly, â€Å"My fists were clenched I was ready to make fly. Cecil Jacobs had announced the day before that Scout Finch’s daddy defended niggers. † Though Scout continually defends Atticus on the playground and in other parts of town, the racist remarks do not stop. Even Scout’s cousin Francis is overwhelmingly supplied with racist remarks, â€Å"At a safe distance her called, `He’s nothin’ but a nigger-lover’.† In Scout’s defense of her father the reader is already subjected to her viewpoint on Atticus being a hero – and a hero is made that much grander when they are up against the evil majority of a town and they have the support of their family. It is perhaps both of these elements; that of going against the odds and of Scout’s unquestionable devotion to her father’s cause, that make Atticus Finch a hero. It is in racism, and the reality of that prejudice that the entire town’s lives are changed, and the political arena of the courtroom shows itself as discriminatory. It is against this charge of discrimination that Atticus may be defined as a hero, and it is also his failure against this prejudice that makes him a tragic hero. Modern literature juxtaposes a character’s dwindling faith in themselves and reality. Atticus’ reality is that he is trying to save a person in a town wherein they are already found guilty by the color of their skin. There are elements of justice and finding the truth beneath the guise of bigotry that play a major part in support of Atticus’ being a hero. His unwavering pursuit of justice against these odds is what chiefly finds him out to become a hero not in his son’s vision of a father (in that subjective viewpoint) but in a more universal definition: Heroism through moral judgment. In classic Greek drama, Plato’s idea of morality is presented as rational action. Morality isn’t a free will that governs humanity’s actions, but rather it is universal reason (life as a whole) that dictates action, thus in is found Atticus’ heroism. In his moral judgment in defending Tom Robinson and even going against a lynch mob in his pursuit of that justice create in Lee’s story a dynamic force of this moral reality. In Atticus’ is awakened the sense of racial heroism, as Crespino states â€Å"In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism. † (Crespino 9). It is perhaps this one pursuit that most clearly defines the type of heroism found in Atticus Finch’s character, that of a seeker and of a tragic hero. It is in his morality that such a definition can most succinctly be expounded. Human nature is a nature of reason, not strictly adherent to passion or feelings, but rather to a higher calling – it is this higher calling in which readers find Atticus’ heroism, his morality despite an adverse reality. Morality then, becomes the crux of finding heroism in Harper Lee’s novel. Morality is reason. This is not to say that Plato and other classic Greek writers were ascetic; rather they placed passion, and feelings in their plays but the ethics of humanity being tied into the good of a person. Being virtuous, or good leads a character to happiness or release at the end of a story, but it is this lack of release that allows Atticus’ specific type of heroism to exist. He goes into the court case fighting for Tom’s innocence with full knowledge of what his opposition is in that town. The word for this given by Plato is eudemonism, which means blissful and it is the lack of this eudemonism that makes Atticus such a striking and memorable literary character. Atticus was a man filled with faith in human nature; an optimist/realist of some sorts. Plato’s philosophy of human nature doing evil was that a person only does evil in ignorance, for he believed everyone, just as himself wants only what is good, which is Atticus’ attitude in the novel and the quality that makes him a great lawyer is not a hero. In modern literature, the lesson is not about escapism but coming to terms with life and making a fundamental choice, a moral choice. Choices can be broken down into good and evil in modern literature in defining a hero, or to be more exact they can be dichotomized into heroic and a state of succumbing to one’s own humanity. The tragic hero may witness evil deeds and be in a constant state of exposure to them, but in the end of a novel, virtue is heeded. The source of a character doing evil or good is brought about by unlimited desire. Something that goes unmitigated becomes possessive of that person and they in turn want, and want, without satiation which is what Mayella’s character exhibits. This is when the appetitive part of the soul (the part of the soul that wants sex, food, etc. ) overtakes the rational (part seeking truth, and reason) of the soul resulting in moral weakness or akrasia – it is a weakness that does not belong to the character traits of Atticus Finch. By giving Atticus such moral aberrant characters as Mayella and her father, Lee is making Atticus’ heroism that much more pronounced. It is not then self-interest that leads a person to happiness, and there is a definite equilibrium between the allowance of each part of the soul guided by reason, and asceticism. Atticus was a not a Sophist. Without the guidance of moral reason then a state of chaos would ensue entailing an everyman for himself type of attitude which is what the mob in the story renders. Thus, happiness in the novel can only be achieved when that hedonistic attitude is vanquished which occurs when Bob Ewell â€Å"falls on his own knife†. This scene helps in making Atticus less of a tragic hero and more of an altruistic hero. Morality must be shown as adhering to individual interests. Plato did not agree with the type of hedonism exhibited by the Sophists, who thought human nature was an extension of the animal world. Instead, Plato states that the nature of man is reason; and in this reason exists an organized society constructed by reason. This expresses Atticus’ own viewpoint in the story. In understanding this viewpoint and accepting that Atticus strived for reason, that essence of a lawyer to demand justice when there is no shadow of a doubt for a man’s innocence, the reader can better understand the impetus behind Atticus’ moral actions. Happiness for the rational man in modern literature then comes into fruition by governing their more base, animal, desires, which are irrational; it is with Atticus that such states of humanity are more succinctly defined. This morality is extended into the realm of society because of human interaction. Therefore, if a man is to be the pinnacle of reason, and morality, and happiness, then the society that he lives and associates must then also exhibit such a moral temperance. This is the faith by which Atticus bases his lawyer’s argument. If then a society is blinded by hedonism, or pure desire of self, a man in that society has no hope for personal happiness because of lack of morality, reason, and thus fully succumbing to akrasia as can be seen in Atticus and especially Tom’s lives. The concept of good and evil twined together is the elixir of the modern novel; writers breed fears from dreams, the hidden wants of subconscious become known through their character’s actions. Writing and reading novels is a revelation into that unsaid facet of the mind; the mute archetype finally is given voice, and in a way bears witness by both being involved in the action and telling of the story. It is no wonder that lawyers today base their own judgment on that of Atticus’ (a fictional character) moral judgment and decision making. In the arena of heroism, when a character becomes the basis of real life people’s morality, then the status of a hero is cemented. Modern literature is the truth of life and self reflected through plays and characters. Realism is the liquor by which Harper Lee is exemplified. In realism, the writer is stating that circumstances are the focal point of human contingencies. This is especially true for Lee’s Atticus Finch. In this downtrodden representation of everyman the audience is presented with life at its entire naked state, a hero whose battle is lost. That is the promise of modern literature; veracity, despite the overwhelming depression of life and its deception toward everyman. Writers are honest in their writing, and in modern literature realism and not heroic standards of Greek drama but the Achilles heel is what is depicted. Whether or not the novel ends on a happy or sad note, the point is choice – despite Atticus being a tragic hero his strength remains in sticking to that choice. Modern literature gives the audience no illusions about harsh reality, but it also gives the difference between fate and circumstance and makes a hero.

My use of ICT – iPod (personal)

My iPOD is a 20GB white iPOD. Me and my brother bought it about a year and a half ago to share between us. We decided to get that particular model of iPOD because, although it wasn't cheap, it had a very large memory so that meant we could store both of our music on it as we like very different music. To load the songs onto the iPOD you have to have a computer. With the iPOD comes a program to go on your computer called iTUNES. You load the songs onto this program via the disk drive on your computer. Then you connect up the iPOD to the computer and the iPOD automatically begins to download the songs onto it. Describe how the ICT is being used I use the iPOD mostly to listen to music, tell the time, and occasionally play games when I am extremely bored. My brother uses the iPOD for the same reasons although he likes to play the games on it more than me. I like listening to music, I often listen to it while on my paper round every morning. I have found it invaluable on long journeys, with me and my brother stuck in a car together for many hours. For the occasion when both me and my brother want to listen to at the same time we bought a splitter and an extra pair of headphones. So in that way we listen to music together. We can also, which is very useful too, plug it into the sound system in the car so the whole family can listen. I don't just use my iPOD to store music on though. Because my iPOD has a huge memory I can put on story tapes like the Harry Potter CD's. So we can listen to them in the car as well. I use the iPOD to occasionally tell the time too, it's clock has been useful on several occasions when I haven't had my phone with me. The advantages of using this technology I really like the iPOD. It is a clever design and has many advantages. Firstly, it can be used in so many different ways, plugged into headphones, into the computer speakers, into CD player speakers, into car speakers, it's so easy! In this way it has encouraged the use of more music. Music relaxes many but gives them the freedom of listening to what you want, when you want. I find it useful on the airplane too as its so small and portable. It has a huge memory too so there is a very high limit to the number songs it holds, something like 5,000. Unlike the CD player, it rarely jogs. This is useful in general. However, having a hard disk, it can be damaged by shaking. The disadvantages of using this technology To transfer music onto the iPOD you have to have a computer. If someone doesn't have a computer, the iPOD is pretty useless. We do have a computer, but it is quite heavily used so I find it hard to find enough time for it to sit there and upload music onto it. I think the iPOD also can encourage illegal copying of music. The majority of music recorded on iPOD's are in breach of copyright laws. I personally try not to do this, as the music companies will end up loosing money. However it is very hard to feel sympathetic towards them when you here about them ripping off all these small, new, defenseless bands. I do feel that I could be breaking copyright laws, but I really don't know exactly what constitutes breaking the copyright. I know that you aren't meant to copy CD's between friends but what about if me and my brother have paid half and half for a CD? Are we only allowed to put it on one iPOD? Since I am not sure of the finer points of copyright, I don't really worry that much if I break it. Another bad point of the iPOD is that listening to very loud music played directly into your ears can damage them. I have been told off by my mum many times for playing music too loudly. Because people are listening to music they are not so aware of their surroundings so people are more likely to walk out in front of cars or get mugged. Music that is bought on iTunes cannot be used on any other MP3 players and vice-versa. iPOD's are also iconic. Many people, including me, think of iPOD's to be the main MP3 player this makes them very expensive. The other is that iPOD's get old very quickly. The makers keep bringing out new versions with added things. For example, as soon as we got ours, they brought out the same one with the ability to play videos for the same price. This is annoying but good business for the makers as they make money from us as we keep buying newer versions of their products. If I lived in a time without iPOD's I would have to play my music on a CD player or even on tapes. The tapes get chewed up and CD players just aren't as portable. So in summary, I think that although there are many disadvantages of the iPOD, the advantages out-weigh them. Having an iPOD, or any kind of portable MP3 player gives you freedom and more choice when and what to listen to.

Impact of Oil Prices on the US Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Impact of Oil Prices on the US Economy - Essay Example Although the rise in prices of oil has been large it has not been sudden and the economies of the major economic powers have adjusted to the change. The rise in oil prices will definitely result in an across the board change in prices and thus inflation rates will continue to be high. However the likelihood of this leading to a recession in the US and other large economies of the world is remote. Over the last five years, US natural gas markets have known three major price shocks and have continued to present extremely high volatility (BNP-Paribas). In the past sudden increases in the prices of oil have been followed by sharp increase in inflation, followed by a recession. Again there has been a sharp rise in the prices of oil and it is necessary to understand what effects this can have on the economy and take corrective action where possible and required. With the experience over the last 40 years it is now possible to arrive at a clearer picture of what effects an oil price shock can have. Economists have developed conceptual frameworks to assist in understanding the effects of a sudden increase in any of the inputs to production, that is, labour and capital. These models can be extended to include the effect of oil price shock to allow analysis of the effects of such an event. The political events in the Middle-East, that led to rise in the price of oil, and their relation with the recessions in the US economy, since the first big rise in 1973, are listed in Table 1, enclosed. An examination of this information shows the political events in the Middle East that led to price rise of oil and the recessions during the same period. There does not seem to be an immediate relationship between the two, but if we factor in other information such as the timing of the interference of the central banks/ Government by adjusting interest rates and other fiscal measures to bolster the economy, the stocks of oil at the time of the rise in prices and also the size and performance of that segment of the economy which is not connected directly to the price of oil. As the development rates of the world economy reach all time highs the recession another oil price hike may cause will be difficult to control, since simultaneously interest rates are already very low and further tightening of money supply would yield very marginal results. Because of the phenomenal growth of the world economy things have become quite different from what was historically normal. Real oil prices have reached twice their average over the past two decades, Bond yields have reached the lowest ever levels, American savings are at record lows while the current-account deficit is at a record high (Woodall P, 2006). Discussion Rise in prices of gasoline hit us all

Film report of Ten to chi to _ (Heaven and Earth). (VT 06718, 104 Movie Review

Film report of Ten to chi to _ (Heaven and Earth). (VT 06718, 104 mins) - Movie Review Example Kagetora, though not a pacifist, is powerfully drawn to that idea. He is shown in the film as someone with a compassionate heart and someone who cared for his people deeply. He doesn’t want his subjects to suffer and is thus thinks thoroughly before going to war. But circumstances, especially the claim to leadership of a unified Japan, greatly inspire him. It is probably for such reasons of pride than for conquest of material wealth that he engages in war with Takeda. Hence the movie offers enough detail and perspective for the discerning audience to study and learn. In the case of the portrayal of Kagetora, we learn that not all feudal lords are greedy for expanding their territory. He is not much interested in increasing his political power. In this sense, Kagetora is atypical, for he is philosophical and compassionate and is reluctant to go to war. He engages with Takeda only because he thinks the ‘ends justifying the means’. Hence the film is an informative re cord of the variety of provincial leadership styles witnessed in feudal Japan. This is useful for a student of history, for textbooks often paint a generic picture of political leadership. Ten To Chi To, on the other hand, presents feudal leadership in a nuanced and complex manner, informed as it is by the historical, philosophical and social undercurrents shaping major events in medieval Japan. Takeda is the aggressive feudal warlord who is quick to use force and intimidation to achieve his goals. He is someone who doesn’t care about cruelty to people. He represents a broader conflict that has been a theme in Japanese history for more than millennia. For example, on the on hand we have the fundamental conflict between the tradition and honor of the influential Samurai community. On the other hand is the Buddhist philosophical doctrine which disapproves of violence and killing. Hence a Samurai is a conflicted personality. But Takeda is ruthless when it comes to war and doesnà ¢â‚¬â„¢t heed to Buddhist philosophy at all. To this extent, one can say that the film is an exposition on the problems confronting religious philosophy in Japan’s feudal past. It is a reflection of religion’s inability to control aggressive human impulses that Japan was one of the main participants during World War II – a bitter and tragic episode that ended with the dropping of nuclear bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A facet of the Samurai tradition is its upholding of honor about all else. For members of this warrior caste, valor and fulfillment of duty are of utmost importance. They would rather die than be dishonored and disgraced. One of their important duties is to protect and obey their feudal masters during their military expeditions. The honor of the Samurai depends on the upholding of duties. In the film we see numerous illustrations of courage and sacrifice on part of the Samurai as they attempt to keep their honor. It is ironic that the two opposin g camps in warfare (both composed of Samurais) are united by this common virtue. In this respect, it is fair to claim that irrespective of who wins and loses the war, it is the Samurai and his set of values that come out victorious. Though the director Haruki Kadokawa does not focus much on this aspect of feudal Japan’s culture, it is available to the careful viewer of the film. Thus, alongside insights into politics and social structures of late medieval Japan, the audience

Group Decision Making Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Group Decision Making Process - Essay Example As there weren't any defined hierarchical structure within the group, so the individual and authoritarian decision making strategy were inapplicable in this situation. It was rather that we used the consensus decision-making model, as all every member of our group is a professional who has his own views on the problem, and who can make valuable contribution to solving it. Before making a decision we listened for all of the suggestions the members of our group had, and then we took the most valuable from all of the suggestions we heard. At the end of this stage, everything which we decided was worth attention was written down, and than we developed a strategy of actions according to all the information gathered. Thus the result we got was a result of real group work, but without the biases of the groupthink phenomenon. One of the characteristic features of group decision making process is that a good process itself doesn't guarantee the good outcome, and, on the contrary, complicated decision making process doesn't always result in a bad decision. Group decision making process is much more complicated than the individual one, due to the fact that there are several people in the group whose views have to be considered when making a decision.

Duke Elington Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Duke Elington - Essay Example In my opinion success for him was being original and establishing his or her own self by their hidden qualities and discovering yourself. He was beyond all boundaries and crossed all perimeters of extraordinary work and therefore was beyond all the prevailing categories. Therefore he is an inspiration for many of us out there exceeding all the categories. 2.The two isolated principles or method that The Duke Ellington applied it life and music. These can help others to succeed in the following manner. According to him he applied innovation to his music. He was a revolutionist who brought new concept in the field of music which is the best example of innovation is his Jazz music. He brought changes which reshaped and revolutionized the present standards. That was set by his ancestors. Another thing that was remarkable and seen in his era was thathis efforts showcased unity. He was the first one to bring a change so he gathered so many people under one platform and formed a band. Ellin gton gathered them and amalgamated them into a single band which was formed to propagate this form of music. This is a great example of success through unity. He knew that he was not anything until and unless people supported him with the cause so he accumulated many men with the same mindset and propagated music formulating a band which is his greatest achievement. Another thing that led to success was that he did not care about gaining fame and popularity. He only worked to spread music therefore he gathered everyone and worked together in benefit of the cause which was to spread jazz music everywhere. 3. Looking at Ellington from the view point and perspective of my major and music, many of his achievement are as followsof Duke Ellington is the most prominent composer in the history of jazz music. He was the leader of a band who was managing a huge group simultaneously for about a time period of almost 50 years. The two features of his career that are very prominent are related t o the usage of Ellington's band as a laboratory to experiment music where he created new compositions and sculptured his writing in such a manner that would exhibit the qualities, talent and strength of his band members. Many of his band members were his partners from a very long time. Ellington was also in writing scores for films and also prepared musical programs for the stage. He devised various musical instruments which were incorporated in his songs that became standardized. While he was travelling a lot years he was in and years he was out, he continued to record extensively. Which eventually led to formation of a gigantic body of work he did which is still being accessed and admired by many of his followers even after a quarter of a century after he has departed from us. He still lives to serve as an inspiration for many. He is a revolutionist who was very devoted to his work and devoted his entire life for music. 4.The characteristics of Ellingtonia music is as follows: Ell ington's style encompassed five different and distinct tunes and compositions that were dance numbers, the style of jungle or the numbers of production for the cotton club, the mood pieces or the blue pieces, pop pieces which were initially work of others but later he produced his own and finally those musical compositions which

Means of Company's Driving Superior Shareholder Value Coursework

Means of Company's Driving Superior Shareholder Value - Coursework Example I introduced the balanced scorecard which is a performance report based on a broad set of both financial and non-financial performance measures as the best strategic management accounting tool to be employed in the current business environment today. I also focused a bit on how shareholders could align their interests with those of shareholders since present compensation plans such as the granting of stock options to CEOs have been unable to motivate managers to create value for shareholders. I therefore recommended that managers should be compensated based on the amount of shareholder value that they generate and that it is also necessary for managers to be evaluated based on the amount of long-term economic value that they generate since evaluating them based on short-term performance measures can make them be myopic and as a result engage in short-term activities to generate higher short-term results for the short-term financial performance measures.Today, the current business env ironment has become characterized by the importance of the investor and the drive for shareholder value. Shareholder value is the value of a firm minus future claims (debt). Shareholder value is given by taking the net present value (NPV) of all future free cash flows to the firm plus value of non-operating assets minus future claims (debt). Non-operating assets include marketable securities, excess real estate and over-funded pension plans, whereas future claims include interest bearing long-term and short-term debt, capital lease obligations, under-funded pension plans and contingent liabilities. Only when a firm earns a return on invested capital (ROIC) above the cost of capital can that firm be said to be creating economic shareholder value.  Ã‚  

Organizational Governance Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organizational Governance Analysis - Essay Example At departmental levels, decisions are mandatory and all departments need to make decisions which are oriented to the vision, mission and general objectives of the organization. The governance of an organization bears on organizational culture which may be construed to refer to attitudes, values and beliefs which are shared by the people constituting a particular organization. Alternatively, organizational culture may be seen to refer to both the norms, principles and standards that guide individual behavior in an organization thereby controlling the way individuals and groups of people within the organization interact with one another and with other stakeholders that are found out of the active running of the organization (Hill and Jones, 2001). The governing body not only gives direction to organization through decision making but also initiate a permanent organizational culture (Huse, 2009). This paper seeks to highlight the general concept of organizational governance paying empha sis to the good and bad organizational governance practices. This is achieved through an analysis of an organization thereby giving its strengths and weaknesses as far as governance is concerned. Organizational governance may be defined as the processes, Policies, and structures which an organization puts to use so as to not only gain direct control of the organizational activities but also realize organizational objectives and also protect the interest of the entire shareholder population and the society as a whole. The processes, Policies, and structures distinct of organizational governance enhance the handling of the interests of the shareholders and society in such a way that is based on the most appropriate moral and ethical standards. Another way of terming the words in the foregoing paragraph is that the function of organizational governance is basically the leadership function in an organization which offers direction within an organization manages risk and controls all the organizational activities. Based on this submission, the organizational governance can then be termed as a function which enables the organization to: Comply with societal legal and regulatory rules Comply with the accepted business norms, ethics and meet the general societal social expectations of the organization. Benefit the society at the same time enhancing the interests of the stakeholders Report completely and honestly to not only its owners but also its regulators, stakeholders, and the general public in a bid to ensure responsibility for its conduct, decisions and performance Successful organizational governance requires that there exists synergy among its basic functions of its governing body. The governing body of an organization is made up of the board of governors, the management, the internal auditors and the external auditors. If synergy among these four organs of organizational governance exists, then the result is a well performing and efficient organization. The board of governor's responsibility is that it sets a governing and managing tone at the top. Being the focal point of all management activities in the organization it ensures ultimate accountability at every level of the organization and oversees all the organizational activities without necessarily managing them directly (Pointer & Orlikoff, 2002). The management is divided into two;

Penn Foster College Essay Example for Free

Penn Foster College Essay We are in diverse world, a world of differences and unique situations. For example, it is the mandate of the Law that children should study and that it should be financed by our parents, for most, in their primary and secondary, and for those born with golden spoons on their mouths, up until their college days or Ph. D. We have different priorities and our human values are made up of the inward and outward factors of the societies we were brought up. We also have different needs, from small things like ice cream, electronic gadgets, to houses and cars. According to the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, a person has deficiency needs and growth needs. Before he advances to the next level of need, he should have met the previous need. That’s what is happening to us. The people around us such as our parents, relatives, and friends nurtured us. Once the fourth level of need was accomplished (achievement, recognition, or approval), we now aspire for growth. The common growth that can lead us in higher positions in society, with huge paychecks, and luxurious lives, is the growth in education. We could have not known that this growth is priceless until we have engaged in jobs or in the professional world. However, once a person is in the marketplace, he has been wrapped up with some daily concerns, from her work, and, once he gets at home, from the concerns of his family. And though there’s an opportunity of a higher education, it has been covered up with the loads that we have from the concerns above. Like most of us, I also have dreams for the future and my goals are going to be a lot difficult to reach if I have not planned it critically. I made use of the Step Decision Model as my guide. I am fond of teaching kids, yet I didn’t have enough money to pay for the tuition in a university. That is my problem. In addition, my mom is already old and I only earn through peer and personal tutorials. I have the option to stop realizing that education is an infinite learning. Yet, I insist to make a decision. I weighed down my options. The little money I earn can be used to pay my tuition fee and travel expenses or it can help me buy the needs of my family. Finally, I enrolled in a kind of college that I have recently found out to be enjoyable, educational, and very convenient—distance learning. This is an alternative from the kind of education that we get from the four corners of the classroom. Distance learning offers lots of conveniences for me—it makes me save up my money and makes me much available to aide my mother. However, before, I had difficulty in focusing to my subjects due to conflicting schedules. There were times that I prioritized the tutees that I had because it was their exam week and they needed greater time of assistance. There were also instances that I had family gatherings and reunions that I almost forgot to accomplish a certain project. It’s my decision to study so I should be responsible and make the best out of it. If I really want to earn a degree, I should be serious about it even to the littlest things. Conflicting schedules should not interfere with my studies. I now make sure that every time I study, I have a conditioned mind. Also, at first, I thought that I can’t have a quality education unlike those students in the usual college setting, but I was proven wrong. In distance learning the professors consistently interact with their students. And as a learner, I enjoy the benefits of having my mentor’s attention even if he or she is very distant. With that, I have developed the confidence to communicate with people even of higher ranks and they have properly guided me. As part of the human dimension, a balanced life needs a clear or if not a detailed set of priorities. Learning is fun but we should understand that distance learning is not different from any other learning. We should be serious with it. We should be eager to learn and to focus. Proper time management and the passion to pursue our dreams make will make us enjoy our studies while performing other responsibilities to our loved ones and to our works. References: Penn Foster College. Penn Foster Collger Student Testimonials http://www. pennfoster. edu/student_testimonials. html Huitt, W. (2004). Maslows hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from, http://chiron. valdosta. edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow. html

Engine Cooling And Lubrication System

Engine Cooling And Lubrication System Cooling System: Despite the vast improvement in the basic internal combustion engines, around 70% of the energy from the gasoline is converted to heat. As it is not dissipated to the atmosphere on its own, a cooling system is employed for this purpose. Several purposes of the cooling system which it serves by cooling the engine include cooling the engine to keep it from overheating by transferring the heat to the air. This helps avoid the excessive wear and tear at high temperatures, auto-ignition due to hot cylinder which may result in knocking and hence, piston/cylinder failure. It may also incorporate thermal stresses which is not good for the engine itself. Figure . Cooling system and plumbing connection While it serves the purpose of cooling the engine, it also helps the engine to warm up quickly during cold start ups and then maintaining a constant temperature. When the engine is cold, components wear out faster too and the engine is less efficient, emitting more pollution. Types of Cooling System: There are two types of cooling systems found in cars: Air-cooled Liquid-Cooled Air-Cooled Engines: Many small and the medium-sized engines are air-cooled. This category includes most small engines like lawn mowers, chain saws, model airplanes etc. Using the air-cooled system allows both the weight and price of the engine to be kept low, along with reduced complexity of the machine. The air-cooled system is still widely used on most of the motorcycles in use these days. This system utilizes the concept of heat transfer through fins to cool the engine. The cross-sectional area of the fin being larger closer to the head and a reduction in the area as we move further from the engine block. The basic principle on which the air-cooled engines rely on is the flow of air across their external surfaces to remove the excess heat to keep the engine from overheating. The airflow on machines like motorcycles and aircrafts is provided across the surface when the vehicle moves forward. Deflectors and ductwork is incorporated to direct the airflow to the critical locations where more cooling is required. The outer surface of the engine is made from a good conductor of heat and the surface is finned to promote maximum heat transfer, along with which an extra fan is used to increase the air-flow rate; whereas others use the concept of free-convection. These fins are to be properly designed for appropriate cooling effect which is required. Some automobile engines also use exposed flywheels with air-deflectors fastened to the surface. When the engine is in operation, these deflectors create air motion which increases the heat transfer on the finned surface. Even after considering and applying all the measures, the uniform cooling of cylinders is still difficult to achieve on air-cooled engines as compared to the liquid-cooled engines. The figure below shows that the cooling needs are not the same at all the locations. Figure . Variation of heat losses from the fins of an air-cooled aircraft engine. Seventy-one percent of the heat losses occur on the hotter side of the cylinder, containing the exhaust valve. The engine shown was used on a number of different aircrafts. Hotter areas, such as the ones around the exhaust valve and manifold need greater cooling and hence larger finned surface area. Cooling the front of an air-cooled engine which faces the forward motion of the vehicle is much easier and efficient as compared to the back surface of the engine. This may result in temperature differences and thermal expansion problems. Disadvantages: Disadvantages of air-cooled engines are that they: Are less efficient, Are noisier, with greater air flow requirements and no water jacket to dampen the noise, Need a directed air flow and finned surfaces. Advantages: When compared with liquid-cooled engines, air-cooled engines have the following advantages: They are lighter in weight, They cost less, No coolant system failures (e.g., water pump, hoses), No engine freeze-ups, and Faster engine warmup. Liquid-Cooled Engines: In a liquid or water-cooled engine, the engine block is surrounded by a water jacket through which the coolant flows. This allows for a better control of the heat removal from the engine, just by added weight and a more complex system. Very few water-cooled engines use just water as the cooling fluid in the water jackets; this is because the water has a freezing temperature of 0Â °C which is unacceptable as coolant in colder regions, so additives are usually used for better performance. Although water has very good heat transfer properties, but when used alone, it causes rust and corrosion in many of the pipes of the cooling system. Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is the antifreeze agent which acts as a rust inhibitor and a lubricant for the water pump. When added to water, it lowers the freezing temperature and raises the boiling temperature of the coolant. The properties of the mixture depend on the ratio in which water and the antifreeze agent are mixed. Pure ethylene glycol should not be used, and even at high concentrations the heat transfer properties of the water are lost as well. The properties of the ethylene glycol water mixture are shown in the table below. In addition to good thermal properties, a coolant should satisfy the following requirements: 1. Chemically stable under conditions of use 2. Non-foaming 3. Non-corrosive 4. Low toxicity 5. Non-flammable 6. Low cost Most commercial antifreezes satisfy these requirements. Many of them are basically ethylene glycol with small amounts of additives. Some commercial engine coolants use propylene glycol as the base ingredient. It is argued that when coolant systems leak or when the coolant becomes aged and is discarded, these products are less harmful to the environment than ethylene glycol. Basic Components: The basic components of a liquid-cooled system is shown below. Figure . Basic liquid-cooled system radiator radiator top hose radiator bottom hose water pump thermostat thermostat housing electric cooling fan thermo-time switch Radiator: The radiator is the part of the cooling system which is responsible for the heat rejection from the coolant and into the atmosphere. The radiator core is usually made up of flattened tubes with aluminum strips (fins) that zigzag between the tubes. These fins effectively transfer the heat contained in the coolant into the air stream to be lost into the atmosphere. On each end of the radiator is a tank made up of plastic to cover the ends. The tubes either run horizontally or vertically between the two tanks. The aluminum-plastic system is more efficient and cost effective. On radiators with plastic end caps, there are gaskets between the aluminum core and the plastic tanks to seal the system and keep the fluid from leaking out. The tanks have a large hose connection, one mounted towards the top of the radiator to let the coolant in, the other mounted at the bottom of the radiator on the other tank to let the coolant back out. On the top of the radiator is an additional opening that is capped off by the radiator cap. Another component in the radiator for vehicles with an automatic transmission is a separate tank mounted inside one of the tanks. Fittings connect this inner tank through steel tubes to the automatic transmission. Transmission fluid is piped through this tank inside a tank to be cooled by the coolant flowing past it before returning to the transmission. Radiator Fans: One or two electric fans are mounted on the back of the radiator close to the engine. These fans used the concept of forced convection to cool the heated coolant going through the pipes in the radiator core. If noticed, this fan starts working once the engine reaches a predefined temperature, after which the cooling by just natural convection during the forward motion of the car cannot be achieved. In the cars with air conditioning, there is an additional radiator mounted in front of the normal radiator. This radiator is called the air conditioner condenser, which also needs to be cooled by the air flow entering the engine compartment. As long as the air conditioning is turned on, the system will keep the fan running, even if the engine is not running hot. This is because if there is no air flow through the air conditioning condenser, the air conditioner will not be able to cool the air entering the interior. Pressure cap reserve tank: The pressure cap is simply a cap which maintains the pressure in the cooling system up to a certain point. If the pressure builds up higher than the set pressure point, the spring loaded valve releases the pressure. Figure . Pressure cap When the pressure in the cooling system reaches the point when the cap needs to release this excess pressure, some amount of coolant is bled off. The coolant which is bled off goes into the reserve tank which is not pressurized, which causes a partial vacuum in the cooling system. The radiator cap on these closed systems has a secondary valve which allows the vacuum in the cooling system to draw the coolant back from the reserve tank into the radiator. Coolant Pump: It is a simple pump which helps in circulation of the coolant around the system. This pump is run using one of the following: A fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an additional component like an alternator or power steering pump A serpentine belt, which also drives the alternator, power steering pump and AC compressor among other things. The timing belt that is also responsible for driving one or more camshafts. The impeller of the pump uses centrifugal force to draw the coolant in from the lower radiator hose and send it under pressure to the engine block. A gasket seals the water pump to the engine block and prevents the flowing coolant from leaking out where the pump is attached to the block. Thermostat: The thermostat is simply a valve that measures the temperature of the coolant, and if the coolant is hot enough it opens to allow the coolant to flow through the radiator otherwise the flow to the radiator is blocked and the fluid is directed to a bypass system that returns the coolant to the engine. Figure . Thermostat The engine is at times allowed to run at higher temperatures of 190-195Â °C; this reduces emissions, moisture condensation inside the engine is quickly burned off improving engine life, and a more complete combustion improving fuel economy. Oil as a Coolant: The oil when used to lubricate the engine also helps to cool the engine. The piston for example gets very little cooling from the coolant in the water jacket or the externally finned surface, so when the back surface of the piston crown is subjected to the oil splash or flow the piston is cooled to some extent. This is very necessary as the piston is one of the hottest elements in the engine. Usually, the oil is sprayed in pressurized systems, and splashed in non-pressurized systems. The oil acts as the coolant on the back face of the piston crown as it absorbs energy and then runs back into the larger reservoir where it mixes with the cooler oil and dissipates this energy into the other engine parts. This splash cooling of the piston is extremely important in small air-cooled engines as well as in automobile engines. A few other engine components other than the piston are also cooled by oil circulation, either by splash or by the pressurized flow from the oil pump. Oil passages through internal components like the camshaft and connecting rods offer the only major cooling these parts are subjected to. As the oil cools the various components, it absorbs energy and its temperature rises. This energy is then dissipated to the rest of the engine by circulation and eventually gets absorbed in the engine coolant flow. Some high-performance engines have an oil cooler in their lubricant circulation system. The energy absorbed by the oil as it cools the engine components is dissipated in the oil cooler, which is a heat exchanger cooled by either engine coolant flow or external air flow. Oil Pump: The gear-type oil pump has a pair of meshing gears. The spaces between the teeth are filled with oil when the gears unmesh. The oil pump obtains oil from the oil pan and sends oil through the oil filter to the oil galleries and main bearings. Some oil passes from the holes in the crankshaft to the rod bearings. Main bearings and rod bearings are lubricated adequately to achieve their desired objectives. In the rotor type oil pump, the inner rotor is driven and drives the outer rotor. As the rotor revolves, the gaps between the lobes are filled with oil. When the lobes of the inner rotor move into the gaps in the outer rotor, oil is forced out through the outlet of pump. An oil pump can also be driven by a camshaft gear that drives the ignition distributor or by the crankshaft. Oil Pan: Oil also flows to the cylinder head through drilled passages that make up the oil gallery, lubricates camshaft bearings and valves, and then returns to oil pan. Some engines have grooves or holes in connecting rods, which provide extra lubrication to pistons and walls of cylinders. Oil Cooler: Oil cooler prevents overheating of oil, by flow of engine coolant past tubes carrying hot oil. The coolant picks excess heat and carries it to the radiator. Oil Filter: The oil from oil pump flows through oil filter before reaching the engine bearings. The oil filter retains the dirt particles and allows only clean filtered oil to pass. The Lubrication system and its types: There are three basic types of oil distribution systems used in engines: Splash, Pressurized, or A combination of these. The crankcase is used as the oil sump (reservoir) in a splash system, and the crankshaft rotating at high speed in the oil distributes it to the various moving parts by splash; no oil pump is used. All components, including the valve train and camshaft, must be open to the crankcase. Oil is splashed into the cylinders behind the pistons and onto the back of the piston crowns, acting both as a lubricant and a coolant. Many small four-stroke cycle engines (lawn mowers, golf carts, etc.) use splash distribution of oil. An engine with a pressurized oil distribution system uses an oil pump to supply lubrication to the moving parts through passages built into the components. A typical automobile engine has oil passages built into the connecting rods, valve stems, push rods, rocker arms, valve seats, engine block, and many other moving components. These make up a circulation network through which oil is distributed by the oil pump. In addition, oil is sprayed under pressure onto the cylinder walls and onto the back of the piston crowns. Most automobiles actually use dual distribution systems, relying on splash within the crankcase in addition to the pressurized flow from the oil pump. Most large stationary engines also use this kind of dual system. Most aircraft engines and a few automobile engines use a total pressurized system with the oil reservoir located separate from the crankcase. These are often called dry sump systems (i.e., the crankcase sump is dry of excess oil). Aircraft do not always fly level, and uncontrolled oil in the crankcase may not supply proper lubrication or oil pump input when the plane banks or turns. A diaphragm controls the oil level in the reservoir of a dry sump system, assuring a continuous flow into the oil pump and throughout the engine. Figure . Lubrication of an engine consisting of a combination of a pressurized system and splash system Oil pumps can be electric or mechanically driven off the engine. Pressure at the pump exit is typically about 300 to 400 kPa. If an oil pump is driven directly off the engine, some means should be built into the system to keep the exit pressure and flow rate from becoming excessive at high engine speeds. A time of excess wear is at engine startup before the oil pump can distribute proper lubrication. It takes a few engine cycles before the flow of oil is fully established, and during this time, many parts are not properly lubricated. Adding to the problem is the fact that often the oil is cold at engine startup. Cold oil has much higher viscosity, which further delays proper circulation. A few engines have oil preheaters which electrically heat the oil before startup. Some engines have pre-oilers that heat and circulate the oil before engine startup. An electric pump lubricates all components by distributing oil throughout the engine. It is recommended that turbocharged engines be allowed to idle for a few seconds before they are turned off. This is because of the very high speeds at which the turbocharger operates. When the engine is turned off, oil circulation stops and lubricated surfaces begin to lose oil. Stopping the oil supply to a turbocharger operating at high speed invites poor lubrication and high wear. To minimize this problem, the engine and turbocharger should be allowed to return to low speed (idle) before the lubrication supply is stopped. Lubrication system in 2-stroke engines: Many small engines and some experimental two-stroke cycle automobile engines use the crankcase as a compressor for the inlet air. Automobile engines which do this generally have the crankcase divided into several compartments, with each cylinder having its own separate compressor. These engines cannot use the crankcase as an oil sump, and an alternate method must be used to lubricate the crankshaft and other components in the crankcase. In these engines, oil is carried into the engine with the inlet air in much the same way as the fuel. When the fuel is added to the inlet air, usually with a carburetor, oil particles as well as fuel particles are distributed into the flow. The air flow then enters the crankcase, where it is compressed. Oil particles carried with the air lubricate the surfaces they come in contact with, first in the crankcase and then in the intake runner and cylinder. In some systems (model airplane engines, marine outboard motors, etc.), the oil is premixed with the fuel in the fuel tank. In other engines (automobiles, some golf carts, etc.), there is a separate oil reservoir that feeds a metered flow of oil into the fuel supply line or directly into the inlet air flow. Fuel-to-oil ratio ranges from 30:1 to 400:1, depending on the engine. Some modern high-performance engines have controls which regulate the fuel-oil ratio, depending on engine speed and load. Under conditions of high oil input, oil sometimes condenses in the crankcase. Up to 30% of the oil is recirculated from the crankcase in some automobile engines. It is desirable to get at least 3000 miles per liter of oil used. Most small lower cost engines have a single average oil input setting. If too much oil is supplied, deposits form on the combustion chamber walls and valves will stick (if there are valves). If too little oil is supplied, excess wear will occur and the piston can freez e in the cylinder. Engines that add oil to the inlet fuel obviously are designed to use up oil during operation. This oil also contributes to HC emissions in the exhaust due to valve overlap and poor combustion of the oil vapor in the cylinders. New oils that also burn better as fuel are being developed for two-stroke cycle engines. Some two-stroke cycle automobile engines and other medium- and large-size engines use an external supercharger to compress inlet air. These engines use pressurized/ splash lubrication systems similar to those on four-stroke cycle engines with the crankcase also serving as the oil sump. Lubricating Oil: The oil used in an engine must serve as a lubricant, a coolant, and a vehicle for removing impurities. It must be able to withstand high temperatures without breaking down and must have a long working life. The development trend in engines is toward higher operating temperatures, higher speeds, closer tolerances, and smaller oil sump capacity. All of these require improved oils compared to those used just a few years ago. Certainly, the technology of the oil industry has to continue to improve along with the technology growth of engines and fuel. Early engines and other mechanical systems were often designed to use up the lubricating oil as it was used, requiring a continuous input of fresh oil. The used oil was either burned up in the combustion chamber or allowed to fall to the ground. Just a couple of decades back, the tolerances between pistons and cylinder walls was such that engines burned some oil that seeped past the pistons from the crankcase. This required a periodic need t o add oil and a frequent oil change due to blowby contamination of the remaining oil. HC levels in the exhaust were high because of the oil in the combustion chamber. Modern engines run hotter, have closer tolerances which keep oil consumption down, and have smaller oil sumps due to space limitations. They generate more power with smaller engines by running faster and with higher compression ratios. This means higher forces and a greater need for good lubrication. At the same time, many manufacturers now suggest changing the oil every 6000 miles. Not only must the oil last longer under much more severe conditions, but new oil is not added between oil changes. Engines of the past that consumed some oil required periodic makeup oil to be added. This makeup oil mixed with the remaining used oil and improved the overall lubrication properties within the engine. The oils in modern engines must operate over an extreme temperature range. They must lubricate properly from the starting temperature of a cold engine to beyond the extreme steady-state temperatures that occur within the engine cylinders. They must not oxidize on the combustion chamber walls or at other hot spots such as the center crown of the piston or at the top piston ring. Oil should adhere to surfaces so that they always lubricate and provide a protective covering against corrosion. This is often called oiliness. Oil should have high film strength to assure no metal-to-metal contact even under extreme loads. Oils should be non-toxic and non-explosive. Some desired qualities of Lubrication oil: Lubricating oil must satisfy the following needs: Lubrication. It must reduce friction and wear within the engine. It improves efficiency by reducing the friction forces between moving parts. Coolant Removal of contaminants Enhancement of ring seal and reduction of blowby Slow corrosion Stability over a large temperature range Long life span Low cost Hydrocarbon Components in Lubricating oil: The basic ingredients in most lubricating oils are hydrocarbon components made from crude oil. These are larger molecular weight species obtained from the distillation process. Additives: Various other components are added to create a lubricant that will allow for the maximum performance and life span of the engine. These additives include: Antifoam agents: These reduce the foaming that would result when the crankshaft and other components rotate at high speed in the crankcase oil sump. Oxidation inhibitors: Oxygen is trapped in the oil when foaming occurs, and this leads to possible oxidation of engine components. One such additive is zinc dithiophosphate Pour-point depressant Antirust agents Detergents: These are made from organic salts and metallic salts. They help keep deposits and impurities in suspension and stop reactions that form varnish and other surface deposits. They help neutralize acid formed from sulfur in the fuel. Anti-wear agents Friction reducers Viscosity index improvers Rating of Lubricating Oils and grades: Lubricating oils are generally rated using a viscosity scale established by the Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE). The higher the viscosity value, the greater is the force needed to move adjacent surfaces or to pump oil through a passage. Viscosity is highly dependent on temperature, increasing with decreasing temperature. In the temperature range of engine operation, the dynamic viscosity of the oil can change by more than an order of magnitude. Oil viscosity also changes with shear, decreasing with increasing shear. Shear rates within an engine range from very low values to extremely high values in the bearings and between piston and cylinder walls. The change of viscosity over these extremes can be several orders of magnitude. Common viscosity grades used in engines are: SAE 5 SAE 10 SAE 20 SAE 30 SAE 40 SAE 45 SAE 50 Common oils available include: SAE 5W-20 SAE 10W-40 SAE 5W-30 SAE 10W-50 SAE 5W-40 SAE 15W-40 SAE 5W-50 SAE 15W-50 SAE 10W-30 SAE 20W-50 Synthetic Oils: A number of synthetically made oils are available that give better performance than those made from crude oil. They are better at reducing friction and engine wear, have good detergency properties which keep the engine cleaner, offer less resistance for moving parts, and require less pumping power for distribution. With good thermal properties, they provide better engine cooling and less variation in viscosity. Because of this, they contribute to better cold-weather starting and can reduce fuel consumption by as much as 15%. These oils cost several times as much as those made from crude oil. However, they can be used longer in an engine, with 24,000 km (15,000 miles) being the oil change period suggested by most manufacturers. Available on the market are various oil additives and special oils that can be added in small quantities to standard oils in the engine. These claim, with some justification, to improve the viscous and wear resistance properties of normal oils. One major improvement that some of them provide is that they stick to metal surfaces and do not drain off when the engine is stopped, as most standard oils do. The surfaces are thus lubricated immediately when the engine is next started. With standard oils it takes several engine rotations before proper lubrication occurs, a major source of wear. Oil filters: Included in most pressurized oil systems is a filtration system to remove impurities from the engine oil. One of the duties of engine oil is to clean the engine by carrying contaminant impurities in suspension as it circulates. As the oil passes through filters that are part of the flow passage system these impurities are removed, cleaning the oil and allowing it to be used for a greater length of time. Contaminants get into an engine in the incoming air or fuel or can be generated within the combustion chamber when other than ideal stoichiometric combustion occurs. Dust and other impurities are carried by the incoming air. Some, but not all, of these are removed by an air filter. Fuels have trace amounts of impurities like sulfur, which create contaminants during the combustion process. Even pure fuel components form some contaminants, like solid carbon in some engines under some conditions. Many engine impurities are carried away with the engine exhaust, but some get into the interior of the engine, mainly in the blowby process. During blowby, fuel, air, and combustion products are forced past the pistons into the crankcase, where they mix with the engine oil. Some of the water vapor in the exhaust products condenses in the crankcase, and the resulting liquid water adds to the contaminants. The gases of blowby pass through the crankcase and are routed back into the air intake. Ideally, most of the contaminants are trapped in the oil, which then contains dust, carbon, fuel particles, sulfur, water droplets, and many other impurities. If these were not filtered out of the oil, they would be spread throughout the engine by the oil distribution system. Also, the oil would quickly become dirty and lose its lubricating properties, resulting in greater engine wear. Figure . Oil Filter Flow passages in a filter are not all the same size but usually exist in a normal bell-shaped size distribution. This means that most larger particles will be filtered out as the oil passes through the filter, but a few as large as the largest passages will get through. The choice of filter pore size is a compromise. Better filtration will be obtained with smaller filter pores, but this requires a much greater flow pressure to push the oil through the filter. This also results in the filter becoming clogged quicker and requiring earlier filter cartridge change. Some filter materials and/or material of too small a pore size can even remove some additives from the oil. Filters are made from cotton, paper, cellulose, and a number of different synthetic materials. Filters are usually located just downstream from the oil pump exit. As a filter is used, it slowly becomes saturated with trapped impurities. As these impurities fill the filter pores, a greater pressure differential is needed to keep the same flow rate. When this needed pressure differential gets too high, the oil pump limit is reached and oil flow through the engine is slowed. The filter cartridge should be replaced before this happens. Figure . Exploded view of an Oil Filter Figure . Pore size distribution for common filters Sometimes, when the pressure differential across a filter gets high enough, the cartridge structure will collapse and a hole will develop through the cartridge wall. Most of the oil pumped through the filter will then follow the path of least resistance and flow through the hole. This short circuit will reduce the pressure drop across the filter, but the oil does not get filtered. There are several ways in which the oil circulation system can be filtered: 1. Full-flow oil filtration. All oil flows through the filter. The filter pore size must be fairly large to avoid extreme pressures in the resulting large flow rate. This results in some larger impurities in the oil. 2. Bypass oil filtration. Only part of the oil leaving the pump flows through the filter, the rest bypassing it without being filtered. This system allows the use of a much finer filter, but only a percentage of the oil gets filtered during each circulation loop. 3. Combination. Some systems use a combination of full-flow and bypass. All the oil first flows through a filter with large pores and then some of it flows through a second filter with small pores. 4. Shunt filtration. This is a system using a full-flow filter and a bypass valve. All oil at first flows through the filter. As the filter cartridge dirties with age, the pressure differential across it needed to keep the oil flowing increases. When this pressure differential gets above a predetermined value, the bypass valve opens and the oil flows around the filter. The filter cartridge must then be replaced before filtering will again occur. Solid lubricants, such as powd

Process of Appendix Removal

Process of Appendix Removal Natalija Miller Process Description of Appendix Removal Appendectomy: The appendix itself is a small, finger-like projection off the large intestine. Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix due to a block in the opening to the colon, or by an infection (US National Library of Medicine, 2014). An appendectomy then, is the surgical procedure done to remove the appendix, usually in cases where acute appendicitis is present. The procedure is considered highly recommended in cases where appendicitis may be suspected to reduce the possibility of a life-threatening infection due to an appendix rupture (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Causes of Appendicitis: Appendicitis is considered to have multiple causes, including those that involve stools, mucus, bacteria and other organisms like parasites. These cause the appendix to swell, leading to irritation and inflammation. If the appendix then ruptures, those stools, bacteria, etc., then leak into the abdomen and could cause a serious infection. Inflammation of the abdomen due to bacterial infection is known as peritonitis. Antibiotics, further surgery and/or (in some cases) blood transfusions maybe used to treat this condition (Mayo Clinic, 2011). Diagnosis of Appendicitis: Generally, the physician will first inspect the abdomen and evaluate signs and symptoms. Often a light pressure is applied to any areas of pain, and then relieved quickly. Pressing down on the site and letting go quickly should be considerably more painful or discomforting in cases where appendicitis is present. Doctors will often look for what is termed, â€Å"guarding† – the tendency to tighten the abdominal muscles due to the increase in pressure against the inflamed area. Other helpful diagnostic testing may occur to confirm appendicitis (ultrasound, white blood cell count, etc.), or to simply rule other complications out (urine testing for kidney stones) (Mayo Clinic, 2014). It is important to note, however, that there are no tests to completely confirm the existence of appendicitis. Symptoms of Appendicitis: Certain areas and intensities of pain are considered to be more symptomatic than others. It is important to report any of the following to a physician: Pain of the lower right abdomen or pain that travelled there from the midsection. Progressive pain (increase in severity as time progresses). Heightened pain with touch, coughing/sneezing, or certain movements. Nausea and vomiting. Lack of appetite or desire to consume food. Fever/chills. Constipation/Diarrhea Laxatives and other bowel regulating methods are exceptionally dangerous in cases of appendicitis due to their contribution to the risk of rupture. Pain medications should also be avoided to ensure that other sites of pain are not overlooked, preventing a physician from concluding a definitive diagnosis (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Appendectomy Variations: Open Appendectomy: This is a method where an incision will be made in the lower right abdomen – generally no more than 3 inches in diameter – by which the physician can locate and extract the appendix. Laparoscopic Appendectomy: This is performed through several small incisions and a tube-shaped camera (laparoscope) used to locate the appendix for removal. The laparoscope is hooked-up to a monitor for the surgeon to view during the procedure. This method is not only considered to result in less scarring (shown in Figure 1 below), but also lessen the amount of pain surgery results in, decrease length of hospital care, shorten recovery period, and lower infection rates (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Figure 1: Laparoscopic Appendectomy incision site Possible Risks: There are risks associated with the procedure, which include: Infected incision site. Peritonitis. Obstructed bowels (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Possible bleeding Reactions to anesthesia Pus build-up (US National Library of Medicine, 2014). Other risks may be possible depending on specific medical conditions – report to the physician along with any concerns about the procedure (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Procedure: Before: The details of the procedure will be extensively described, as which point permission to perform said procedure will be requested. A list of medications or medical concerns will be collected, and a sedative or anesthesia will be given to induce a relaxed state, allowing the operation to begin. During: All clothing and jewlery will be removed and a gown will be provided to change into. An intravenous (IV) line will be placed in the arm, wrist or hand. Physicians will request a supine position of the operating table (laying on back). An anesthesiologist will monitor all vital signs during the appendectomy. Open Appendectomy: Through the incision in the lower right quadrant, the abdominal cavity will be opened by separating the abdominal muscles, and the appendix will be removed through a process involving sutures (a series of stitches). In the case of a rupture, the cavity will be rinsed thoroughly with saline and drained. The incision will then be cleansed with an antiseptic to reduce the risk of infection. Laparoscopic Appendectomy: A number of incisions will be made for the laparoscope and the instruments needed to extract the appendix. The abdominal cavity will be inflated with carbon dioxide through one of the incisions to allow for a clearer visual. Once the appendix is located it is tied off with sutures and removed. At the end of both methods, the appendix is examined in a laboratory setting, the incisions will be sealed and the wounds will be dressed with a sterile gauze (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Returning to Daily Living: After the procedure, it is recommended that walking take place within a few hours or the following day. Pain medication may be administered to provide a more comforting environment. It is important to progressively increase the solidity of foods to ensure that the body can still consistently regulate itself. Once discharged (usually after a day or two), the incision site must be kept clean and dry (US National Library of Medicine, 2014). Avoid any strenuous activities until the follow –up (2-3 weeks after surgery), for a physician’s recommendations. It is extremely important to notify a physician if any of the following problems arise: Lasting fever of over 101 degrees Fahrenheit. Any irritation at incision sites. Inability and/or lack of desire to consume fluids. Continuous coughing, shortness of breath and/or trouble breathing. Inability to have bowel movements (Johns Hopkins Medicine). Recovery to the point where normal, everyday activities can resume will generally take place between 2-4 weeks after being discharged (US National Library of Medicine, 2014). References The Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health System. (n.d.). Appendectomy. Retrieved October 26, 2014, from http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/test_procedures/gastroenterology/appendectomy_92,P07686/ Mayo Clinic. (2014, August 20). Appendicitis. Retrieved October 26, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/appendicitis/basics/tests-diagnosis/con-20023582 Mayo Clinic. (2011, July 9). Peritonitis. Retrieved October 26, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/peritonitis/basics/treatment/con-20032165 U.S National Library of Medicine. (2014, October 9). Appendectomy: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 26, 2014, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002921.htm

Biodiesel vs. Ethanol Essay -- Compare Contrast Fuel Essays Papers

Biodiesel vs. Ethanol Both biodiesel and ethanol are derivatives of biomass that have been processed to create a liquid biofuel. Both types of biofuels have been touted as secure and environmentally safe alternatives to fossil fuels, however the research verifying these claims is extensive but often contradicting. In the following paper, the efficiency and quality of the two types of biofuel will be discussed. The effects of variables such as source materials and production techniques on efficiency and quality will be considered. Due to the limited scope of this paper however, only generalized net analyses of ethanol and biodiesel production will be considered. The production of ethanol requires one of two source materials, cellulose or sucrose, both of which are complex sugars. Currently, corn and sugar cane are the primary source materials for ethanol; however it can be produced from any plant cellulose. Ethanol is created using chemical and non chemical processes. These processes include liquefication, saccharification, fermentation, and distillation (Malca and Freire, 2006). Today, the world’s ethanol is primarily produced in Brazil using sugarcane. The second largest producer of ethanol is the United States, where it is created from corn. Ethanol has the largest production mass of all the biofuels (Powlson, Riche, and Shield, 2005). In 2003 Brazil produced 9.9 million tons, as compared to 8.4 million tons produced by the United States, and 1.75 million tons produced in Europe (Malca and Freire, 2006). Biodiesel is produced by subjecting the triglycerides found in vegetables oils and fats to transesterification, which is the exchanging of the alkoxy group of an ester compound by another alcohol. This creates an ox... ... dbio-ethyl tertiary butyl ether (bioETBE): Assessing the implications of allocation. Energy, 31: pp. 3362-3380. McCormick R, Graboski M, Alleman T, and Herring A. (2001). Impact of biodiesel source material and chemical structure on emissions of criteria pollutants from a heavy-duty engine. Environmental Science Technology, 35 (9): pp. 1742-1747. Pimental D and Patzek (2005). Ethanol Production using Corn, Switchgrass and Wood; Biodiesel Production using soybean and Sunflower. Earth and Environmental Sciences, 14 (1). Powlson DS, Riche AB, and Shield, I. (2005). Biofuels and other approaches for decreasing fossil fuel emissions from agriculture. Annals of Applied Biology, 146: pp. 193-201. Van Gerpen JV. (1996). Cetane number testing of biodiesel. National Biodiesel Board Reports Database, Liquid Fuels and Industrial Products from Renewable Sources.

Capital Punishment Essay - Death Penalty is Socially Sanctioned Murder :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

The Death Penalty – Socially Sanctioned Murder Capital punishment is not "actual" punishment. It's a capital reaction to a type of criminal act. It serves no purpose. When a person is executed, the person learns no lesson. He or she cannot say, "Hey! I learned my lesson. I surely won't do that again," for he or she is dead. Although the word "punishment" is used in varying contexts, it is generally accepted that it is served out unpleasantly to an individual in hopes that that person learns from the punishment and, therefore, doesn't repeat the bad deed. Good grief... So, why execute? The question is one of justification. It is wrong to deliberately kill another person, yet capital punishment (or "killing") consists of doing precisely this. Cost of the Death Penalty Capital punishment in California, as in every other state, is more expensive than a life imprisonment sentence without the opportunity of parole. These costs are not the result of frivolous appeals but rather the result of Constitutionally mandated safeguards that can be summarized as follows: Juries must be given clear guidelines on sentencing, which result in explicit provisions for what constitutes aggravating and mitigating circumstances. Defendants must have a dual trial--one to establish guilt or innocence and if guilty a second trial to determine whether or not they would get the death penalty. Defendants sentenced to death are granted oversight protection in an automatic appeal to the state supreme court. These constitutional safeguards translate into: - a more extensive jury selection procedure - a four fold increase in the number of motions filed - a longer, dual trial process - more investigators and expert testimony - more lawyers specializing in death penalty litigation - and automatic, mandatory appeals Since there are few defendants who will plead guilty to a capital charge, virtually every death penalty trial becomes a jury trial with all of the above necessary requirements and expenses. In Los Angeles County, the total cost of capital punishment is $2,087,926. In Los Angeles County, the total cost of life imprisonment without possibility of parole is $1,448,935. General Studies A study done by the Sacramento Bee argued that California would save $90 million per year if it were to abolish the death penalty. The average cost of a capital trial in Texas is $2.3 million--three times the cost to incarcerate an individual for 40 years. The average cost of a capital trial in Florida is $3.2 million. Myths and Facts Deterrence Scientific studies have consistently failed to demonstrate that executions deter people from committing crime. The respected Thorsten

Solving Vertical and Horizontal Well Hydraulics Problems

A new generalized three-dimensional analytical solution is developed for a partially-penetrating vertical rectangular parallelepiped well screen in a confined aquifer by solving the three-dimensional transient ground water flow differential equation in x-y-z Cartesian coordinates system for drawdown by taking into account the three principal hydraulic conductivities (K _x, K _y, and K _z) along the x-y-z coordinate directions. The fully penetrating screen case becomes equivalent to the single vertical fracture case of Gringarten and Ramey (1973).It is shown that the new solution and Gringarten and Ramey solution (1973) match very well. Similarly, it is shown that this new solution for a horizontally tiny fully penetrating parallelepiped rectangular parallelepiped screen case match very well with Theis (1935) solution. Moreover, it is also shown that the horizontally tiny partially-penetrating parallelepiped rectangular well screen case of this new solution match very well with Hantus h (1964) solution.This new analytical solution can also cover a partially-penetrating horizontal well by representing its screen interval with vertically tiny rectangular parallelepiped. Also the solution takes into account both the vertical anisotropy (a _(zx)=K _z/K _x) as well as the horizontal anisotropy (a _(yx)=K _y/K _x) and has potential application areas to analyze pumping test drawdown data from partially-penetrating vertical and horizontal wells by representing them as tiny rectangular parallelepiped as well as line sources.The solution has also potential application areas for a partially-penetrating parallelepiped rectangular vertical fracture. With this new solution, the horizontal anisotropy (a _(yx)=K _y/K _x) in addition to the vertical anisotropy (a _(zx)=K _z/K _x) can also be determined using observed drawdown data. Most importantly, with this solution, to the knowledge of the author, it has been shown the first time in the literature that some well-known well hyd ra

Human Resource Management in Business Essay

‘Managing People’ Describe how your organisation obtains the co-operation of its employees through the contract of employment and employee involvement techniques. Employee Co-operation Contracts of employment An employment contract is a written legal document that lays out binding terms and conditions of employment between an employee and an employer. The employers in ZARA need to makw sure that their employees are aware of what rights and responsibilities they have as workers in ZARA. This contract also includes: The salary rate that is going to be paid to the employees. When they will be getting their salaries What deductions are going to be made from their salaries like income tax. Contractual entitlements These are outlines within the contract so the employee and employer both know what is expected of each other when working in an organization. Things like pay might include the salary amount that has to be given by the employer to the employee and when it is supposed to be paid. Holiday pays might also be included in this depending on what kind of job it is. These contractual entitlements also include the number of hours that the employee has to work, this also includes over time. Type of employment of the employee will be comprised in the entitlement. This can either be temporary or fixed employment. The employees working in ZARA also need to be aware of these contractual entitlements so that that they know what to expect from the employers and vice versa. Firms set some disciplinary rules in the place that they are going to be working in and need to be followed at all times. Employees need to make sure that they follow the rules the employers have set for them until they are working for that firm. Pension benefits are also given to the employee after they leave the organization. These pensions are paid to the employees month after month, the amount is discussed before hand and depending on the employee’s income history and as well as their age and how long they have served in the firm. Employee and employer rights Employers in Zara need to make sure that they are following the laws of all employee rights in their state. There are some employee rights that need to be followed. Some of these are: All employees need to make sure that they are getting paid the equal sum of money. Employees need to make sure that they aren’t doing any illegal work or something that would be a subject of discrimination. Employers in the firm need to make sure that the employees are not dismissed for an unfair reason. Employees also should be provided with maternity and paternity pay. To receive redundancy pay is basically a sum of money which is given by an employer to an employee who has been made redundant. Payment is done based on the employee’s rate of pay and length of service. Employees should make sure that they receive an annual leave from their employers within a year’s time without consequences. Employees should be paid at least a minimum wage in the firm. Type of employment contract: Permanent: this is one of the most common types of employment contracts that businesses follow. This employment contract includes things like the amount of pay and terms and conditions which are accepted by both the employee and employer. This type of contract lasts one year and is renewed after each year on employment. Temporary-companies use this contract because it saves them a lot of money and time. This type of contact lasts for only a short period of time. Full time- This is when an employee is asked to work more than 35 hours a week, but it depends on the job description. For example: a sales man in ZARA works from day till night for a long period of time. Part time- This is when an employee works for a little amount of hours instead of the whole day. For example: there are to employees doing the same job, one works in the night shift and the other in the day shift. Casual- when a firm is in need of employees, they tend to use this kind of employment contract. This has an advantage and as well as a disadvantage for  the employees as they might have less work to do compared to the other employees but they might not know when they are getting their next job. Zara uses full time employment contracts with their staff. Disciplinary procedures Disciplinary procedures are a set way for an employer to deal with disciplinary issues. They should include a disciplinary hearing where you’re given a chance to explain your side of the story. Grievance procedures This is a problem that could occur between the employee and employer, it is a complaint that they could have against each other for something that either of them has done wrong. Union Membership This is when a group of staff or workers is formed into a labor union. These unions play a big role in the firm as they can talk about issues between each other. An example is when there is a problem with the staffs pay amount of even the working conditions. Codes of behavior This is basically a set of conventional principles that are considered binding on the employer/employee. This is mainly about what is acceptable behavior in the firm. Employee involvement techniques Companies might use these techniques in order to get the staff more involved in decisions being made for the organization. This may also motivate the staff as they would feel they are also part of the firm and not just ordinary staff working there. Membership of work groups Firm’s employers might have groups of employees where all the workers work together. This can be advantageous as the workers might have more ideas in the group. There are different types of work groups in firms, For example: Board groups and work councils Quality Circles Intra-organizational groups Suggestion schemes This helps the employee’s involvement in the organization. Employers make sure that he staff feels like they are part of the firm and that their ideas and suggestions matter. Staffs ideas sometimes make big changes in the organization and benefit them in many ways. To motivate the employees more, the employers give them rewards and prizes to keep them thinking about more and more ideas to improve the company, by doing this, it will motivate employees to work better and harder. How Zara obtains Employee Corporation? The rules, regulations and rights are followed by both the employees and employers in ZARA. ZARA has also explained the disciplinary procedures to the employees and as well as their employers. Employees are involved in the decision makings of ZARA and they are taken into consideration. Working together in work groups also takes place in ZARA. Finally, suggestion schemes are mainly monitored by the firm as this gives each and every employee a chance to share their ideas for ZARA. Devolved authority and responsibility Getting the employees more involved in the firms decision making enables the employees to do better work and be motivated to do it with their maximum capabilities. But this can also be a disadvantage because: The employees would want extra pay if their ideas work and take place in the firm. Employees might get stressed out as they would have more work load on their heads. Open communications This is when there is two way communications in the firm between the employees and the employers. Formal This is when formal communication between the employers and employees happen. For example: the employers are discussing business matters by the use of  presentations or letters or even emails. Informal This kind of communication happens in an informal way between the staff and the employers. An example of this is: when the staff are chatting with their employers when going home, does not necessarily have to be about business but can be just about other matters. Top down This happens when any information about the firm is given from the top (owners or employers) to the bottom (managers and staff). An example of this is: when an important change comes to the business and the information is carried from the owners to the managers. Bottom up This is the opposite of top down, and information is given from the staff and managers to the top owners of the firm. Lateral This is communication which is done between the employees of the business but with those who are at the same level but different sections of the company. Types of communications Communication is basically the transferring of a message from the sender to the receiver, who understands the message. There are 3 ways of communication and these are: Verbal Verbal communication can be face to face talks, telephone calls, video conferencing, meetings, etc. There are both advantages and disadvantages of verbal communication. One advantage is that information is given out quicker. There is also a high chance where the feedbacks is given immediately and not have to wait for it where as in when a meeting is happening the employers are not sure that all the employees are listening or has understood all the information. This could be of an disadvantage for both the employee and the employer. Written Written communication is a type of communication method and may include memos, letters, reports, emails, etc. When communication is written, it can become of evidence in the future if needed. For example: emails that are  sent between the employee and employer can be kept for the future if any problem occur in the future. This type of communication can also be a disadvantage because the same message can be sent to a large number of people at once and all those people might not read the message immediately and therefore a feedback or reply may be given late. Visual Visual communication can be a form of Charts, firms, posters, etc. This kind of communication can be an advantage as this might be a catch to the eye. The disadvantage of this is there might be no feedback immediately and this kind of communication is not used in all firms because the employees might not understand diagrams and charts. These types of communications are used in ZARA. The employees in ZARA would use verbal communication as it is the easiest method and since they deal in customers, it would train them to become more confident when talking face to face and on the phone. Organizational Culture (ethos, values, mission) Organizational culture refers to the values, practices and behaviors that make up a unique and social environment within an organization. This can be expressed in a number of ways, including the ethos of the firm. An ethos is a code of conduct that a firm basically has. This might be set out in a published set of values or a mission statement so that employees, customers and other stakeholder are aware of what the firm believes in and feels is important. National accreditation (Investors in People (IPP) This type of structure is mostly used in businesses so that all the employees in the firm can be involved with the schemes. Investors in people are one of the well-known awards and also known as (IIP). This can be achieved when employees are able to invest on one of the biggest assets- people . This has mainly 3 rules: 1. Plan, which basically means developing strategies to improve performance. 2. Do, which means taking action to improve the performance. 3. Review, which need to be evaluated and used to improve performance too. Charter Mark and International Standards Organization (ISO)) This is a national award which has helped public service firms, For example: public  schools and hospitals, to keep developing and improving their quality of service for customers and this can also be done to involve employees in decision making.